Monday, September 30, 2019

What is Bayesian Thinking?

It is common knowledge that human beings commit errors in judgment all the time. In areas of uncertainty, most of us go with our gut intuition, and in most cases this intuition turns out to be wrong. Much of this is derived from the fact that humans are poor statistical thinkers, and thus poor Bayesian thinkers. What is Bayesian thinking? Let us start with an illustrative example, called the Monty Hall problem — famously depicted in the Kevin Spacey movie â€Å"21.† There are three doors, and behind each door is either a goat or a car. There will always be two doors with goats and one door with a car. The player first chooses a door without opening, and the game show host whose interests are opposed to the player, proceeds to open a different door. Since the host knows what is behind each door, he always opens a door with a goat. Now that the player is left with the initially chosen door and another closed door, the host offers an opportunity to switch to the other unopened door. Should the player switch? The answer for an intuitive Bayesian, a purely statistical thinker, should be easy. Unfortunately, human beings are not intuitive Bayesians. In fact, most people answer that it doesn't matter if the player switches or not, since the probability of winning a car is 50% between the two doors anyways. They would be wrong. Now, before we examine the correct way to think about this problem, one might ask, so what? Why does it matter if humans are not intuitive Bayesians, or even more broadly, bad statistical thinkers? Simply, Bayesian reasoning corrects some of the issues with bad statistical thinking. Bad statistical thinking leads to bad judgments and decisions, which have a wide variety of consequences in everyday life as well as in arenas such as politics and science. Thus, everyone should become better Bayesian thinkers, because under uncertainty, accurate probabilistic judgments are useful and important.To give a accurate depiction of how Bayesian reasoning works, let us return to the Monty Hall problem, and examine why not only switching doors matters, but that it is beneficial to switch. When the host first opened the door with the goat, something happened: opening the door gave the player extra information, and thus changed the probability of outcomes. By utilizing this extra information, it is no longer a 50% chance for the player to win the car after switching doors, but a ~67% (2/3) chance. Let us suppose that the player picks the door which contains the car. The host opens either the first goat door or the second (it does not matter), and the player switches to the other goat door and loses. Now, suppose the player picks the first goat door instead, which means the host is forced to open the second goat door. Since the only other door contains the car, the player switches and wins. Lastly, suppose the player picks the second goat door. The host is forced to open the first goat door, which again, means the player will win the car after a switch. These are the only three possible scenarios, and so we see that the probability of winning is two out of three if the player switches. Conversely, what if the player doesn't switch? In the first scenario, the player wins the car, but in scenarios two and three, the player obviously loses. Thus, to not switch is to have only a 33% (1/3) chance to win the car.The Monty Hall problem is a rather simple illustration of how Bayesian reasoning works, so in order to gain a more complete understanding, we must explore its principles. In 1763, a paper by Reverend Thomas Bayes was published posthumously called â€Å"An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances,† and brought about a paradigmatic shift in statistics: by using ever-increasing information and experience, one can gradually approach the unknown or understand the unknown (of course, his main motive was to prove the existence of God). Fundamentally, Bayesian reasoning believes in the correction of probabilities over time, and that all probabilities are merely estimates of the likelihood of events to occur. Through the further efforts of mathematicians like Lagrange in perfecting the Bayesian framework, we now have a modern and complete theory of probability. First, there are what we call priors, which is the strength of our beliefs, or put it another way, the likelihood that we are to change our beliefs. Then, we have our posteriors, which is the empirical aspect, or the influx of new information. The Bayesian framework then takes these two components and mathematically analyzes how posteriors affect priors. If we know nothing about an event, then all we can do is estimate a probability. However, if there is new information, then the probability must be corrected based on this new information. Over time, as experiences grow through more information, these estimates of probabilities will eventually fit â€Å"reality.† In the Monty Hall case, the moment the the host opened the goat door, that influx of new information, or change in posteriors, immediately influences the player's priors. If the host doesn't open a door, the player merely has a 33% chance to win the car between the three doors, and switching makes no difference. However, since the host removes a door, and specifically the door that contains a goat, these two new posteriors directly influence the original prior from 33% to 66%. One might think that this method of thinking is mysteriously similar to the scientific method, which is certainly true. However, To put it another way, Bayesian thinking is how to use some known information or experience to judge or predict the unknown. For example, event A is â€Å"rainy tomorrow† and event B is â€Å"cloudy tonight†. If you see cloudy tonight, what is the probability of raining tomorrow? If you use the Bayes theorem directly, you only need to know the probability of raining every day, the probability of cloudy nightly, and if one day it rains, then the probability of the cloudy night of the previous night will be substituted into the formula and done. The question is, where do these probabilities come from, and how do we infer the possibility based on the information we have . In fact, most of the valuable problems are backward problems, for example: the stock market, through those few signs can be judged to be a more or less opportunity; the hospital, through which symptoms can determine what is the disease; science Research, through several experimental data, you can construct what theory to explain the model and so on. In general, mathematicians, physicists, etc. are all about backward problems, or they can not predict or judge the outcome with few signs or phenomena, and there is no value (by the way, do not know the reverse Problem-thinking people can not fight in the financial market or the stock market. At present, the most advanced research in the speculative market is almost a process of backward stochastic process and martingale theory. It is known that the incidence of a disease is 0.001, that is, 1 in 1,000 people is sick. There is a reagent that can test whether a patient is sick or not, and its accuracy is 0.99, which means that 99% of the patients may be positive when the patient really gets sick. Its false positive rate is 5%, which means that 5% of the patients may get positive if they do not get sick. There is a positive test result of a patient, what is the probability that he does get sick?We got a staggering result of about 0.019. In other words, even if the test is positive, the probability of getting sick is only increased from 0.1% to 2%. This is the so-called â€Å"false positive†, that is, the positive result is not enough to show that the patient is sick.Why is this? Why is the accuracy of this test up to 99%, but the credibility is less than 2%? The answer is related to its false positive rate. Here we see the power of the Bayesian theorem, that it allows us to deduce the unknown probability from the known probability and the information at hand.The human brain and quantification vs heuristic thinking. The advantage of Bayesian analysis is that it does not require any objective estimation, just guess a priori casually. This is the key, because most of the events that occur in the real world have no objective probability. This is actually very similar to the scientific method: we did not know anything from the beginning, but we are willing to experiment and gradually find out the laws of nature. Bayesian reasoning operates in the same way, through continually the posterior probability in accordance with existing experimental data. Biggest problem with Bayesian reasoning is that human brains cannot quantify information easily. The most commonly raised example is Malcolm Gladwell's â€Å"Outliers†, where many people who are trained enough in certain low-chaotic environments make correct decisions and judgments without using the Bayesian framework at all. Firefighters, for example, do not undergo a Bayesian calculus before deciding whether or not it's safe to pull a child out of a burning building. They just do it because they've done it many times before, and have a rough heuristic estimate on the safety of such an action. Similarly, chess players do not use Bayesian analysis to think many turns ahead; what research has found is that through thousands of hours of practice and becoming familiar and experienced with similar setpieces in the past, gives them an ability to predict moves assuming that the opposing player is also rational. Conversely, high chaotic environments, such as the political sphere, is where Bayesian reasoning thrives due to the high amount of uncertainty.The other criticism are from the frequentists. In general, the probability of teaching in school can be called frequencyism. An event, if performed repeatedly multiple times independently, dividing the number of occurrences by the number of executions yields a frequency. For example, throwing coins, throwing 10000 times, 4976 times positive, the frequency is 0.4976. Then if the implementation of many many, the frequency will tend to a fixed value, is the probability of this time. In fact, to prove it involves the central limit theorem, but it does not start.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Adolescent Moral Development

Morality can be defined as the distinction between what is right and wrong or what is good and bad. Although, moral reasoning depends on culture which makes it difficult to define. Most people don’t look at where these principles are coming from or what guides one through moral development. As children grow and learn, usually from care takers and people who inspire their every need, their morality changes based on several levels. Although researching of moral development goes as far back as Socrates, there are two psychologists that studied morality in depth and they are Lawrence Kohlberg and Jean Piaget.Jean Piaget was a cognitive developmental psychologists spending most of his time working with children and adolescents, including his own. Although, Piaget’s observation of moral development wasn’t in depth like Kohlberg, he allowed for a basic understanding. He believed that moral development occurred in stages. Piaget strongly believed in education and thought interaction in a education setting allowed children maximum potential in cognitive development. Piaget believed in many things, but when it came to moral development there were only two basic principles.The first principle was that children develop moral ideas in stages and could not skip stages, although movement from one stage to the other could vary in length. Lastly he believed that children create their own perception of their world, including whether their actions enforce what is morally right or wrong. â€Å"Piaget's ideas of moral realism and morality of cooperation play a role in Kohlberg's theory. Children in Piaget's stage of moral realism believe that rules are absolute and can't be changed.Punishment should be determined by how much damage is done, and the intention of the child is not taken into account. For example, a child operating in the stage of moral realism would believe that a child who accidentally breaks three cups should be punished more than a child who b reaks one cup on purpose. Eventually, both the damage done and the intention of the offender in a given moral dilemma are considered in this stage of moral development. † Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral development in depth and that is what he is most commonly known for.Although his basic ideas and principles originated from the ideas of Piaget, Kohlberg did an in depth study of the basics of morality and how a child or adolescents move from one stage to the next. Kolberg had developed six stages of moral development. All of the stages were grouped into three levels of sub categories. Stages one and two are pre-conventional judgment and moral development. Stages three and four are conventional judgment. Lastly, stages are five and six are post conventional.When children are born Kolberg believes that they have no morals and as they grow and learn, morals begin to form. The pre-conventional level is where morality begins. This is the basis of moral judgment. The moral values he re in this stage are external. Stage one is based on obedience and punishment. If a child is punished they will try and avoid the situation knowing that they will be punished so that act is known as wrong to the children. Stage two is a slightly more complex stage. Children are now egocentric and are able to exchange thoughts and ideas.Both male and females hold certain roles and have different beliefs. The conventional level â€Å"Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned â€Å".Stage three is where children are labeled. In this stage ch ildren are labeled either good or bad. Children try and please others for acceptance and approval. For example, during the Christmas holiday season children try their hardest to be good so Santa will come and bring them Christmas presents. Where as if they are bad they will receive coal. Stage four is where authority comes in and plays a highly important role. Children learn that authority figures are the ones who control and maintain order. Also they try and live up to others expectations instead of their own.The post conventional level is where moral values allow adolescents and adults to distinguish the difference between societies view of right and wrong and the views of their individual views. Most people live by these views of right and wrong. In stage five the world is known as being able to hold their own opinions and views. Stage six is using your own opinions and applying them. For instance choosing to use logic and consistency or the feeling of your own ethics to make und erstandable and logical decisions. While a child grows the formation of morality is highly important.Alcoholics, drug addicts and murderers might suffer from disturbed moral thoughts which might cause an error in their beliefs of right and wrong. For instance, a murderer who grew up in an abusive home atmosphere might think it is okay to be abusive and hurt other people. So therefore there morality was culture based and was encouraged based on the home life sustained. The same for alcoholics and drug addicts. Although, not all people who come from these types of dysfunctional families suffer and act upon there cultural up bringing some may.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Racial Discrimination Within the Gay Community Essay

My community is the most diverse of all. I am speaking of the gay community. Our community consists of people from every race, every religion, every gender, and every economic sector. We claim to be all-inclusive, embracing everyone despite our differences and celebrate our diversity with pride very openly. The issue of gay civil rights came to national attention on June 27, 1969. On that evening, police raided a small gay bar in New York’s Greenwich Village called The Stonewall Inn, which sparked three days of rioting. The event is considered the single most important event that led to the modern movement for gay civil rights. The gay community’s perseverance has led to gay pride celebrations being held across the country. San Francisco is the considered the birthplace of pride celebrations, as a â€Å"gay-in† was held on June 27, 1970, to commemorate the one year anniversary of the Stonewall riots. Current pride celebrations often include themes such as inclusion and diversity, demonstrating the gay community’s beliefs that everyone should be treated equally, regardless of any differences. However, as Buchanan (2005) stated, â€Å"We claim to be the most maligned group in society, but when it comes to discrimination, some say that gays can give as good as we get† (Gays at receiving end of bias claim). The issue of racial discrimination in the gay community came to light when the San Francisco Human Rights Commission (HRC) issued their report on April 26, 2005 after an investigation of alleged discrimination at a popular bar in the Castro. The investigation was initiated by a group of citizens that claim the bar, SFBadlands, was practicing discriminatory acts in employment and patronage. I frequent the bar in question regularly and am personally acquainted with an African American who works there as a bartender. The group making the accusations, And Castro For All, alleged in a letter sent to the HRC June 22, 2004, that the owner of the bar implemented policies to discourage African Americans and women from patronizing the bar. The group also alleged that the bar owner practiced discriminatory hiring practices. Out of the forty-five employees of the bar at the time, only seven were â€Å"people of color† and none were women. The group requested the HRC investigate the bar owner and his business practices to determine if there were any â€Å"civil rights violations†. The group also requested the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control to revoke the owners’ liquor license. Further allegations against the bar and it’s owner included unwarranted removal of African-American and other minority patrons from the bar, inferior service to minority customers and denial of entry of minority customers due to dress while white patrons dressed similarly were admitted. The commission found the bar and its owner discriminated against African-American job applicants and customers, however there was insufficient evidence to conclude any other wrongdoing. During the ongoing investigation, And Castro For All staged protests in front of the bar that caught media attention and sparked national conversation regarding the persistence of racism in the gay community (VanDeCarr, 2005). During these protests, the bar was busy as usual. The demonstrations, one of which was held during the Castro Street Fair, a popular street fair held every October, did little to diminish patrons to enter the bar. As I stood in line that day waiting to enter the bar, listening to the chant â€Å"Think before you drink† there was not much for me to think about. I had talked to the African-American bartender that I know about the allegations, and he responded that the allegations were false. The protests and demonstrations by And Castro For All have been compared to the civil rights and women’s movements of the 1960’s and 1970’s. The fight for gay marriage has also been compared to the civil rights movement. These comparisons have people of color raising an eyebrow, and have bred hostility where it should have sown solidarity. In Massachusetts shortly after gay marriage was legalized, Governor Matt Romney told city clerks they could enact a 1913 law forbidding out-of-state couples from marrying if their home states would not recognize the marriage. The law was written with the intention of barring interracial marriages. The Massachusetts Supreme Court made another equation when gay marriage was legalized. They referenced the historic cases that legalized interracial marriages to the case that led to the legalization of gay marriage by citing the difference as a single trait: skin color in the interracial cases, sexual orientation now. This â€Å"formula of gay = black has upset some Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) people of color† says Hernandez (2005 Gaily ever after 11). During the 1990’s when the gay movement went mainstream, LGBT people of all colors claim it became a mouthpiece for wealthy gay men. The reason the comparison of gay marriage to the civil rights movement has raised indignation say some LGBT people of color is because it does not account for the racial and economic privileges white gays have. In not being able to marry, some say this is the first time that white gays are feeling the effects of discrimination. Further accusations of racial discrimination in San Francisco’s Castro district disrupted a meeting of the Merchants of Upper Market and Castro (MUMC) on March 3, 2005. The subject of racial discrimination came to a head when the President of MUMC was accused of paying obligatory attention to the growing concerns of racism in the Castro. White males own most businesses in the Castro, a fact that many do not realize. In attendance at the meeting were about 25 members, five of which were either non-white or female. Thanks to a neighborhood economic development program organized by the LGBT Center of San Francisco, a yoga studio opened in October of 2004, which is the first black-owned business in the area in a few years. So, what does the future of the Castro look like? According to Bevin Duffy, an openly gay man on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors is hopeful. Speaking after a mediation agreement was signed between the owner of SF Badlands and the group An Castro For All, Duffy is quoted: ‘This has been a painful process but it has created a great deal of awareness of the distance we need to go to be a truly inclusive community†¦. I hope for all of us it is an opportunity to heal now and to move forward, with each of us individually committed to be open, welcoming and accepting to people in our community who may be different. ’ (Bajko, 2006, p. 2). Not everyone shares Mr. Duffy’s optimism. Gomez (2006) states â€Å"Thirty years from now maybe queer will have evolved from a fashion statement†¦and retained its original connotations: progressive, independent, empathetic, activist. Colored queers will still be making the noise of protest†¦Maybe by then we’ll believe we’re stronger together than apart† (Race: the growing chasm, 10). I think Gomez is wrong, at least when it comes to my neighborhood. I have hope for my neighborhood. The Castro has long been seen as â€Å"gay mecca† to LGBT people the world over, and hopefully the racial scar isn’t too deep. At least the actions of a few people have paved the way to change. Until we can resolve the inequalities in our own backyard, will we then be able to achieve equality with our straight allies, such as equal marriage rights. Once we become the kind of people we say we are, then we can become a racially diverse role model for the world.

Friday, September 27, 2019

U.S. Health care System vs. Canada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

U.S. Health care System vs. Canada - Essay Example In both countries, the process of health care development was neither linear nor smooth (Boychuk, 2005; Cunningham, 2003). The two neighboring countries, Canada and the United States have created health care systems that are very distinct. Kovner, Knickman and Jonas (2008) write that the system of health care delivery in the U.S. works along two different lines: one which helps to keep people healthy and another one comprising activities directed at dealing with health issues, once they occur. In its current state, the system of care delivery in American health care is characterized by (1) the growing role of institutions and medical professionals, (2) dramatic advances in medical technologies and electronic communications, (3) the existing tensions between big business and caring for patients, and (4) dysfunctional payment and financing. The latter, according to Kovner et al (2008) means that the U.S. system of health care is extremely expensive to maintain, and that insurance makes the system of payments to hospitals physicians extremely complex. The financing mix of U.S. health care looks as follows: 28% in direct taxes, 7.4% in indirect taxes, 35.5% in general taxes, 13.3% in social insurance, with private insurance and direct payments making up the rest (Wagstaff & Doorslaer, 1998). Unlike the United States, Canada gives its clinicians unprecedented autonomy in where they want to work and what set of medical services they are willing to deliver (Deber, 2003). A single-payer system, Canadian health care has been particularly successful in reducing its administrative costs (Woolhandler, Campbell & Himmelstein, 2003). Where the United States health care operates as a combination of public and private insurance options (Jensen et al,...health care. Recent advances in the Canadian system of health care can teach the United States a good lesson of economy and efficiency at a national scale. The current state of literature provides abundant information about health care progress in the United States. According to Cunningham (2003), the history of U.S. health care dates back to the end of the 19th century, when acute infections, the lack of medical technologies and social organization urged the creation of a national system of health care. The U.S. health care emerged in response to broad health challenges in 19th century America. By contrast, the evolution of the health care system in Canada was a logical process initiated by the earliest policy developments and propositions in Saskatchewan (Boychuk, 2005). In both countries, the process of health care development was neither linear nor smooth (Boychuk, 2005; Cunningham, 2003). The two neighboring countries, Canada and the United States have created health care systems that are very distinct. The American and Canadian systems of health care are equally different and alike. Advanced and sophisticated, both systems rely on the principles of efficiency and quality care. However, in distinction from the U.S., Canada pursues a rigid distinction between private and public health care.

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Elder Abuse (CASE) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Elder Abuse (CASE) - Essay Example Elder abuse is a serious health as well as social problem and a major cause of death and injuries. According to NCEA statistics, those experiencing abuse have a 300% higher risk of death. The aim of this paper is to discuss the characteristics of abusers and victims, the types of abuse and how one at risk can seek help by looking at the case of Ms. Sanders. Ms. Sanders is 72 years old and with a declining health status hence at risk of elder abuse. Although her son Simon has taken over the responsibility of taking care of her, this does not prevent the abuse as research shows that most abuse is perpetrated by family members and to make matters worse, he abuses prescription medications. There are various types of elder abuse according to APA (2014) and (NCEA 2014) : physical; verbal, emotional or psychological; sexual; financial or exploitation and neglect. Physical abuse occurs through hitting, kicking, shoving, physical restraints and other methods that cause injury to the victim. Warning signs include: bruises, burns, broken bones, and repeated unexplained injury. Verbal, emotional or psychological abuse involves name calling, threats, intimidation, and disrespectful comments that cause fear or emotional distress to the victim. Warning signs of this abuse include: unusual depression, uncommunicative, unreasonably suspicious or unexpl ained changes in behaviour. Sexual abuse involves inappropriate tuouching, sexual contact or rape and can be recognized if the victim has bruises on breasts or genital areas or unexplained vaginal bleeding. Financial abuse is in the form of fraud, forgery, identity theft, home improvement scams and predatory lending (California Department of Justice, 2014). For such elders, their life circumstances do not match their financial assets, there are unusual bank activities like ATM withdrawals. Neglect may not be intentional

Financial markets and institutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial markets and institutions - Essay Example Any commodity market might be considered to be financial market if trader’s intention is not the immediate consumption of the commodity but as a means of delaying or accelerating consumption over time. Markets work by placing many interested sellers in one place, thus making them easier to find for potential buyers. An economy which relies primarily on connections between buyers and sellers to allot capital is known as a market economy. Financial markets are affected by forces of supply and demand, and allot capital over time through a price device such as the interest rate. Financial market could mean: organizations that facilitate the transaction in financial products, (for example, Stock exchanges facilitate the trade in stocks, bonds and warrants) and the coming together of buyers and sellers to trade financial products such as stocks and shares including: the use of stock exchanges; directly between buyers and sellers. There are different types of financial markets: capital market which provide finance through issuance of shares and bonds, commodity market which facilitate the trading of commodities, money market which arrange short term debt financing and investment, derivatives markets that provide instruments for the management of financial risk, insurance markets, which facilitate to cover of various risks and foreign exchange market which facilitate the trading of foreign exchange (Wikipedia, 2006). When looking at a financial institution it might seem to be a mediator between investors and customers. A financial institution might be considered as an agent that provides financial services for its customers. Financial institutions generally fall under financial rule from a government authority. The types of financial institutions include banks, building societies, credit unions, stock brokerages, and similar businesses. Financial institutions give service

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Administrator challenges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Administrator challenges - Essay Example Discipline is a single word but it has lot of meanings i.e. order, control, arrangement and organization. It is a continuous process of training and educating ourselves to live under control of certain rules and regulations Gondal (1999). According to a poet (1976), life is the combination of a few elements under some ‘discipline’, and death is the indiscipline among these elements. Men live in a society which is governed by certain laws to keep the individuals in discipline. If the discipline is not maintained properly, the result will be chaos, anarchy, disturbance, and ultimately ruin. Thus a society can function peacefully only if its individuals are disciplined. Even an individual can’t make progress in life if he does not discipline himself. Law-breakers and undisciplined persons bring ruin not only to themselves but also to society Wallace (1987). The primary origin for any criminal justice system is the law of the society, and it plays an important role in a democratic society. The course of growth of law in a democratic society makes sure an evaluation of community permission for the law through approval expressed by the elected government. The whole criminal justice system in a country, thus, moves around the laws those are passed by the Union Parliament and State Legislatures. Police department comes at the phase as the main law enforcement authority available to the State. Being a police commissioner, it is my responsibility to administrate and control the discipline in the department. I faced lot of problems in this occupation. As the role of police in keeping public order have even greater restrictions especially in a democracy. Preservation of order involves a certain evaluations of peace and avoidance of violence of any kind. The typical features of the existing social structure in many countries are, inter-group disagreements on description of religions, language, caste,

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Bullying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 9

Bullying - Essay Example The failure of people and adults to control bullying in the school grounds as well as in the virtual world is very surprising because education is supposed to be the key factor in preventing all of this, but at times even advocacy groups fail to reach out to the people. In general, technology has made it hard for law makers to keep an eye on everyone and keep a thorough check to prevent the act of bullying. The question in the end asked by many is how should one suppress this form of bullying that goes around and tackle the people who initiate the hate process. Unfortunately, there is no feasible tool as of now to deal with the issue because educating the perpetrators is still a gradual process and it will take a long time before elements of this sort can be eliminated and rooted out completely. It is surely a fact that cyberbullying does impact the psychologically vulnerable teenagers. The cyber world is a fast growing network where news travels fast and hence, if a flaw is found in someone’s reputation then it is bound to destroy the image they carry in their society. Cyberbullying is not under control and education plus awareness is the only way in which it can prevented. It is necessary to educate the mass population which includes teachers, parents and even students about the harm it causes to the psychological state of mind and how it has driven many towards suicidal

Monday, September 23, 2019

Issue analysis on three prespectives Research Paper

Issue analysis on three prespectives - Research Paper Example As a means of understanding the question from these three distinctly different points of view, the author hopes to provide a level of insight into some of the motivating factors surrounding the seemingly endless public and governmental debates concerning tuition fee hikes and the effects that these necessitate on the government, private citizen, university employee, and student. Moreover, by analyzing such determinants, it is the hope of this author that the strengths and inherent weaknesses and flaws of each of these vantage points will be adequately represented to the reader. With respect to the first vantage point, that of the neoclassical conservative one, this is an economic point of view that is almost solely concerned with the maximization of utility. In other words, the equilibrium of supply and demand economics is one in which the utility of the shareholder is most appropriately met where the supply and demand curves intersect. E. Roy Weintraub, a prominent economist, noted that the three main determinates of the neoclassical economic understanding were as follows: the understanding and belief that people have rational preferences among outcomes that can be identified and associated with a value, the belief that individuals maximize utility and firms maximize profits, and the belief that people act independently on the basis of full and relevant information (Weintraub, 2011). With each of these determinants, it is readily noted that the main underlying purpose is concentric around the elements of supply and demand fulfilling their purpose of finding the integration point at which the desire of suppliers to provide themselves with the maximal profit and the desire of the consumer to pay the least amount possible is met at the equilibrium point. This neoclassical and/or conservative approach is one which has defined the free market for the better part of 100 years; and indeed the very same approach that the current Keynesian system currently operates wit hin. However, such an approach is found wanting with respect to the degree that it factors in the need to educate the populace or other social goods. The fact of the matter is that although supply and demand/neoclassical understandings of economics help to appreciate the nuances of many other markets, the market for education is something unique due to the residual and societal good that it generates as a function of its impartation. For this fact, the proceeding views with regards to the way that the market for education should be provided to the end consumer have sought to deviate from the traditional or neoclassical approach that has hitherto been detailed. Moreover, such an approach necessarily relies on the laissez faire concept of economics whereby a tuition increase would merely be seen as something that the market would have to accommodate without enlisting any government or tertiary influence into the matter. This understanding of the marketplace as something that requires little to any interference is a hallmark of the neoclassical system. A fundamental difference that develops within the mixed/liberal approach as compared to the neoclassical appr

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Autobiography of a Classroom Essay Example for Free

Autobiography of a Classroom Essay I am a very big classroom in a well-known public school. I cater to needs of the kindergarten class of the school, accommodating I think about eighty five children, a big number isn’t it? I understand that I am the best looking room in the school as, the very small children study here. I am very attractively decorated so that the little ones like to come here every day. The room that is me – is decorated with beautiful coloured pictures. The walls are a blend of some colours I do not know the names of. The furniture that is placed in the length and breadth of the room consists of small round tables to seat four children on each table, and the chairs are also tiny. That is not all, all the furniture is a mixture of many colours. When the children come inside the class they almost fight to sit on certain chairs. That makes me understand that they like the colours and fight for their favourite colours to sit on. At the top two ends of the length of the classroom there are two bigger tables and full size chairs for the teachers to sit. Since there are so many children there are two teachers while in other classes there is only one each. I am a treat for everyone to see. My pleasure knows no bounds when everyone who comes inside the class, admires me, appreciates my get up and the colours that don me. I have the twin advantage of being the most beautiful room in the school and also having the cutest of children coming to spend their time with me. Thus, my life is full of beauty, colour, noise and laughter and at times of course also crying and howling of the children. At times some new entrants to the school come to me with their mothers and, cry as if they had come to the slaughter house to be butchered. At such moments even by heart cries for the little ones and I wonder why man makes these little children come to study if they do not want to. I of course do not know how important studies are for human children, I only feel sad seeing the children cry. My life is full of a very busy schedule though very interesting. The routine of my daily life is so busy that, I do not get any relief for quite long hours. In the morning as early as 6 a. m.two sweepers come open the lock of my room or rather me, and off they start working on me. They sweep my floor, squab it, dust each and every piece of the furniture in me. Thus, I get alerted as soon the room is unlocked. It is not even 8 a. m. when the little brats start pouring inside my body’s doors. At times they enter with so much noise that my whole body feels the rattle of it all. Their movements are so loud that now, I cannot even think of any rest. School bags get flung, tiffin boxes are strewn all about, water bottles are kept just anywhere and there is a lot of commotion all over. Soon the maid enters the room and keeps everything in order and my appearance at once improves and I look tidy and well kept. For these small ones the school hours are just three from, 8 a. m. to 11 a. m. These three hours is my duty time, and just is the time when I also get the day’s entertainment. Being a classroom for the Kindergarten children I get a great chance of hearing conversations between the teachers and the parents. Since this is the first time their children have entered school, parents devote a lot of time to talking about the school and its standards. At times I find that some parents are just too critical and, inspite of getting all the best in this school they always seem to be unhappy and dissatisfied with something or the other in the school. Such parents keep lecturing about things missing in the classroom, the school or even in the playground. When I hear such complaints, my heart sinks and I wonder if they will allow or not allow their children to come to me any more,. For such conversations I have understood that, these days parents pamper the children too much, and it seems that they can never yes, never be satisfied. I am quite surprised to see the vast difference in opinions. While on the one hand I, and also many parents think that I am very beautiful, well kept, and decorated, others of the same clan are always complaining of many defects in my appearance. This gives me a feeling of depression and I do wonder if I can do anything in the matter. After some thinking bouts, I realize that, I can do nothing to satisfy these unhappy parents. I am just here in the hands of the school authorities and stand here as and how they keep me. My working hours are just six, from 6 a. m. when sweepers enter to say 12 noon when I am locked after all children go. After my duty hours I just relax but also feel lonely. No matter what is said about me, I am thoroughly enjoying my life in the cute company of little children. Their company makes me also feel young though now I am quite old. Every summer vacation I am painted afresh, my furniture is painted, and, I am ready to welcome my little friends, new and old with a new look, new enthusiasm and renewed vigour. I pray that my life is forever allowed to remain so interesting and so relaxed. I just love all the children and teachers who come here to me, to work and play in the restricted area within my four walls.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Money Lending Company Is Very Important

Money Lending Company Is Very Important Money Lending Company is very important for a person or company not only in Philippines but also globally. Money Lending Company allows the person or company to lend money to use at any necessary needs but in return they have to pay for it plus its strain. Many people think money lending is all about the involvement of money, particularly for those people who are in this kind of business and for some debtors, but on the second thought we realized that money lending system is not just a typical manual system that calculates the interest and the balances of the debtors. At the very moment that some debtors borrow money to the company may have its security for the data of his/her balances and for those who has this kind of company also has the security that is reliable, paperless works that cause of big expensive by sending the debtors notices through email and text messages. Manual system and computerized system has many differences not only in how to use it but also in the features and the time that you will consume working in the manual than to computerized. Manual system are hardly use by the employee and the time that will consume in saving files on folders and searching the names or the record of the debtors manually. This is one of the reasons why the group decided to make a system that will help them to make their work easy and secured, useful and easy to use by the employee. Lending companies nowadays provides folders, lockers and cabinets to keep the files and data of the debtor and his payment sheets. Manually computing every payments transactions and write in their sheets. It will be hassle for an employee handling a huge number of debtors and sort it one by one. More employees will be involved for the job to finish on time and not that secured file keeping storage. Files may be lost, and misplaced. The proposed system will benefit the employees, the company and the debtors. It will be less hassle to an employee writing the amount of the payment of one entry of debtor, making the company lessens the personnel handling the system. The proposed system will automatically calculate payments, monthly payments, and short payment of the debtor, taxes, and also the penalty for late payments. Due to rapid evolution of technology, numerous manual systems have been automated by computers. An example of this is the database. Before the introduction of computers, during the dark ages of technology, most employers and employees store their files in huge filing cabinets. If by any chance they have to search for a certain file, they dig in and spend a lot of time looking for one or more folders and spends another The group observes that every day, there are numerous persons or company who would like to lend, Due to this case, the Money Lending Company conducts examination of requirements in case the borrower are approved or not. In this setting, the examinees are required to fill up any information or paper-based application. By saying manual, the group notices that the company is using the old pen and paper system. The debtors will be given more than enough time to finish the papers and the information given by the borrower will be written in a separate sheet of bond paper. After the examination for requirements the examinee will be ask to wait for the results. If the applicants will be approved, he will then be scheduled for an interview. If the result shows otherwise, he will not be allowed to borrow. The group sees nothing against this old system but ironically believes that it is about time that Money Lending Company such as Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc. goes with the flow of todays fast paced technology. There is a lot of Money Lending Company who have adopted the idea of Automated Money Lending Information System. Adopting the same innovation opens yet another portal for Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc. Potential borrowers will be awed by the latest technology use by the proponent to deliver an accurate computation, information and etc. There are numerous programming languages that are taken into account for further study and review. Among these programming languages are Visual Basic, JAVA, Visual C# and many more. The group believes that undeniably the arrival of Visual C# in the programming language world has made several breakthroughs. With this idea at hand, the group believes that the best programming language that would definitely suit the needs of the Money Lending Information System for Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc. would be Visual C#. Any information will be kept in a database for future references, in order to secure and kept these information, the group proposes MSSQL. And we will provide a very user friendly interface not only for the borrowers but for the Administrator as well. The group believes that the development of Money Lending Information System for Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc. will deliver a major impact as the company progresses and evolves into a better Information Technology environment. The study will deliver exciting new look in Money Lending Company system. Background of the Study A dynamic and innovative community development foundation that empowers and transforms lives of the socially disadvantaged, of families and communities, this was the vision of Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc. which was a Money Lending Company. In 1986 Alay buhay was founded by people who have a tireless effort of helping poor people, because of the dehumanizing effect of the poverty they made this foundation to save a those children that are in need of help. Alay buhay development foundation is not only a typical lending company, this company has also give chances for the poor; they give help to the poor Filipino children to continue their study by making a scholarship program. They decided to have money lending for their company because the benefit of the said program would be given to those children and in additional Alay buhay development foundation also creates a micro entrepreneur for the those people without job. In 2005 Alay buhay have their success of branching out their services in Marikina, Manila, Caloocan and Rizal Province,these places has known for the where numerous numbers of children are not studying and not afford to study. Despite of having branches they must have a system which is secured and reliable for them to have many debtors for the sake of the people who benefits with them. According to Alay Buhay their mission is As a people-oriented development organization, we commit to pursue community-driven and capability-building programs and services through education, enterprise development, and community empowerment projects geared to contribute to national development. This means they will have to develop and help others, by making programs for the benefit of the out of school children, to give projects to develop our community. Alay buhay has known for their various recognition making them become popular by helping other people, they have the recognition given by the Department of social welfare and development(DSWD) as the social work building projects and giving their services for women, family and most specially to the out of school children. They also received recognition from the province of Rizal. The goals of the company are to develop a self-sustaining organization responsive to the needs of targeted communities and to mobilize local and international resources to support Alay Buhays development efforts and initiatives. And the main goal of the company is to partner with communities and organizations towards the fruition of the vision and mission of Alay Buhay. Alay BuhayDevelopment Company is located at 3rd Floor Criselda 1 Building 109 Scout de GuiaStreet,Bgy. Sacred Heart Quezon City, 1103 Philippines it was founded by Mr. Antonio L. Sayo with the partnership of some local government units and some government agencies. Conceptual Framework Statement of the Problem Many of the problems concern the management and employees of money lending companies today. From manual to automated system, is one way of minimizing the problems of having data loss, miscalculation, and secured record keeping of the debtors. The proposed system will have a solution for the problems. How will the proposed system be able to lessen the time and work needed to compute the loans and interests? Can this proposed system be a tool to organize the records needed by the company and data of debtors? What safekeeping measures can we create to avoid redundancy of debtors files? Significance of the Study The significance of this system with regards to the direct person which is the organic employee of the company are the following; in keeping up with the records of the companies clientele it would be easier and more accessible on their part to look it up on a computer database which is more secured and accurate than to rummage it in a manual records filing cabinet. And in keeping an up to date records of the daily transactions of the clients, the strain of manually inputting the records of the daily transactions of a particular client in the record files, it would be much easier for them to directly input the said transactions in the computerized system for the ease of record filing. With regards to the indirect person or debtors, the system will automatically give them an insight to their present loan transaction, wherein they could easily update their loan payment and their loan status; it would also give them more ample time for their other concerns by shortening the time that they will spend in manually inquiring about their loan status. The debtors will also avoid incurring penalties on their loans because the system will alert the company employees of the debtors who are delinquent in their payment of loans. It would also be an ease for the debtors to deal with the companies employees because all the concerns with regards to their loan transactions are all in real time versus the time consuming manual system that would take days to undertake a general loan status inquiry. With regards to the direct impact of the system program on the company, they will for sure attract more clients or debtors to their company because of the ease of transacting business, wherein the computer program system will assist them in all their dealings with their clientele. In terms of Human resources, the company will save time and money by employing a minimal number of employees working for them, because the computer program system in the company will always assist a particular employee in every aspect of their work, and their working conditions will not be too strenuous, because every diverse detail of it can be readily accessible on their computer system program. The company will surely reap more profits and will make a good use of their saved time in other concerns of the company because of using the system program. Scope and Delimitation Scope The proposed system, Money Lending Information System will replace the old paper based system used by Alay Buhay Development Foundation Inc The Money Lending Information System shall be used companys administrator to assess the interest or calculate the annual strain without having problem computing. The system shall be programmed and designed Visual C#. The database which will contain all the data borrower or employer will be stored and kept secure using with Microsoft SQL (MSSQL) and OLEDB will be use to connect the user-interface and database. Advance skill in Visual C# shall provide a very user-friendly interface not only in the staff but for the administrator as well. Before the step proper, the borrower or employer will ask to fill-up a simple information sheet and after the fill-up, the staff will input the information in the proposed system in order to store their credentials in the company database. Their information will be kept in the database for future references. If the borrower or employer will passed the interview and approved, the staff will input necessary information such as type of payment, how much to be borrowed, due date, interest, requirements and other important information. If the old system uses Microsoft Excel to store the borrowers information and compute the interest and payments, the proposed system can convert assessment that are made through Microsoft Excel, the staff are now exempted through manual transferring of data in the database. Emails and text messages will be received by the borrower or employer couple of days to notify them for the due dates. The proposed system will be precise and accurate for the integrity of the company. This system ought to minimize the work load from employees who would have better things to do rather than computing for a long period of time. The borrower or employer is also restricted in editing or deleting any previous content that they have already placed. Delimitation If by any chance that electrical failure or hardware malfunction occurs, the old system will always come in handy. Electrical failure may cause the computers and other gadgets to halt their processes. This means that the old pen and paper method will come in handy during this time. A hardware failure on the other hand may halt the process of the proposed system. If by any chance that the server where the system is installed does not function correctly, a system failure most likely occurs. The systems database is also limited to the maximum capacity of MSSQL and the disk space of the system where the proposed system is currently installed. The common solution is to print the contents or store it in a different media for backup. The proposed system is limited to the calculations and the display of other information. It will not handle any data manipulation such as edit and delete function for it will open the idea of staff to manipulate such an important the data. Definition of terms Loan: An arrangement in which a lender gives money or property to a borrower and the borrower agrees to return the property or repay the money. Debtor: An individual or company that owes debt to another individual or company, as a result of borrowing or issuing bonds also called obligor. Clientele: The client or customers, as of a professional person or shop, considered collectively; a group or body of clients. Lend: To grant the use of money or something else of value, with the understanding that it or something else of will be returned at a future date value. Money Lending System: is money lending application software developed to which able to process large volume of records and transaction data in companies. Interest: The fee charged by a lender to a borrower for the use of borrowed money. Lender: A private, public or institutional entity which makes funds available to others to borrow. Database: consists of an organized collection of data for one or more uses, typically in digital form. Administrator: a person for the performance or management of administrative business operations Human resources: is a term used to describe the individuals who comprise the workforce of an organization, although it is also applied in labor economics to, for example, business sectors or even whole nations. Human resources is also the name of the function within an organization charged with the overall responsibility for implementing strategies and policies relating to the management of individuals (i.e. the human resources). This function title is often abbreviated to the initials HR. User-Interface: is (a place) where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational decisions. Credentials: is an attestation of qualification, competence, or authority issued to an individual by a third party with a relevant de jure or de facto authority or assumed competence to do so. Automated System: is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Artificial Intelligence :: essays research papers fc

Recently, the media has spent an increasing amount of broadcast time on new technology. The focus of high-tech media has been aimed at the flurry of advances concerning artificial intelligence (AI). What is artificial intelligence and what is the media talking about? Are these technologies beneficial to our society or mere novelties among business and marketing professionals? Medical facilities, police departments, and manufacturing plants have all been changed by AI but how? These questions and many others are the concern of the general public brought about by the lack of education concerning rapidly advancing computer technology. Artificial intelligence is defined as the ability of a machine to think for itself. Scientists and theorists continue to debate if computers will actually be able to think for themselves at one point (Patterson 7). The generally accepted theory is that computers do and will think more in the future. AI has grown rapidly in the last ten years chiefly because of the advances in computer architecture. The term artificial intelligence was actually coined in 1956 by a group of scientists having their first meeting on the topic (Patterson 6). Early attempts at AI were neural networks modeled after the ones in the human brain. Success was minimal at best because of the lack of computer technology needed to calculate such large equations. AI is achieved using a number of different methods. The more popular implementations comprise neural networks, chaos engineering, fuzzy logic, knowledge based systems, and expert systems. Using any one of the aforementioned design structures requires a specialized computer system. For example, Anderson Consulting applies a knowledge based system to commercial loan officers using multimedia (Hedburg 121). Their system requires a fast IBM desktop computer. Other systems may require even more horsepower using exotic computers or workstations. Even more exotic is the software that is used. Since there are very few applications that are pre-written using AI, each company has to write it's own software for the solution to the problem. An easier way around this obstacle is to design an add-on. The company FuziWare makes several applications that act as an addition to a larger application. FuziCalc, FuziQuote, FuziCell, FuziChoice, and FuziCost are all products that are use! d as management decision support systems for other off-the shelf applications (Barron 111). In order to tell that AI is present we must be able to measure the intelligence being used. For a relative scale of reference, large supercomputers can only create a brain the size of a fly (Butler and Caudill 5).

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Handmaids Tale :: essays papers

Handmaids Tale In what ways can The Handmaid&rsquos Tale be considered a feminist novel? The Handmaid&rsquos Tale is narrated by an oppressed woman, so it is to be expected that feminism becomes a recurring theme. Women have no rights or money unless they have a valid marriage to a man. They are given few options&ndash if they are fertile they can become sex slaves&ndash&lsquo womb on legs&rsquo to Commanders or choose to go to the colonies. Infertile women or&lsquo unwomen&rsquo are seen as having no use so they automatically go to the colonies where they will die from disease or radiation. Their use and status is totally dependent on their relationships with men and ability to have children. Women are used by men and treated as far inferior, in Gilead women are the men&rsquos property. The handmaids especially&ndash&lsquo We are a commodity&rsquo, their names in the household reflect this&ndash Offred&ndash Of Fred. They can be disposed of at will, even the Commander&rsquos Wives have little real importance and are given menial tasks such as ordering prayers at Soul Scrolls and knitting the Guardians scarves&ndash&lsquo Maybe it&rsquos just something to keep the Wives busy, to give them a sense of purpose&rsquo. But this concept of women being extensions and property of men is one used in our own society. Though mostly out dated now,&lsquo Mrs Peter Watson&rsquo is similar to&lsquo Ofglen&rsquo. But practically all terms for women are the extension of the term for men&ndash Mr/s, fe/male, wo/man. This leads to the idea that Atwood is really just exaggerating the current situation of the world. The second quote at the beginning of the book from Swift&rsquos&lsquo A Modest Proposal&rsquo indicates that The Handmaid&rsquos Tale is Atwood&rsquos own satirical view of present times. In an interview Atwood says&lsquo theres nothing in the text that hasn&rsquot already happened&rsquo. The third quote&ndash&lsquo There is no sign in the desert that says&lsquo Thou shalt not eat stones&rsquo&rsquo indicates that she believes Gilead could never come into existence because of the common sense of people, no one could really believe in its philosophy and beliefs, the society&rsquos flaws are too apparent. Another interpretation of the novel is that it is a reaction against any idea that the woman&rsquos place is in the home, that her sole use is one of reproduction. It demonstrates where these views could lead if encouraged or entertained. It gives the idea that men would act that way if given the power, that they would like to be in control and superior. That although men outwardly accept and respect women, inwardly they do not see them as equals&lsquo I sense in him (the Commander) none of the

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Sammy in A&P by John Updike Essay -- A&P John Updike Working Careers

Sammy in A&P by John Updike Is where you are in your working career where you want to be for the rest of your life? The answer to that question is simple for Sammy in the story â€Å"A&P† by John Updike. Sammy, like many others in this world, is a young man trying to make some money in a small town. But unlike some, he refuses to be stuck in the same job for many years or possibly the rest of his life. One day while working the register at a local grocery store, Sammy notices three girls walk in. The girls are wearing their bathing suits because the beach is close to the store. When the girls reach the register the manager notices the girls attire. He walks over to them and argues with them for a moment and then girls leave. Sammy didn’t understand why the manager had such a problem with what the girls were wearing. Suddenly Sammy decides to quit. He takes off his apron and walks out the door. One of the things that caught my attention the most was Updike’s use of imagery in describing Sammy’s working environment. â€Å"The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle-†(34), I thou...

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Retail Management in Big Bazaar

A PROJECT REPORT ON Youth alcohol usage PREPARED BY:- Albina saifee, roll no 37 TY. BA ACADEMIC YEAR 2011-12 UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART’S, SCIENCE, COMMERCE MIRA ROAD(EAST) Youth alcohol usage preface Alcohol consumption by young people has a profound effect on our nation, our communities, our families, and our children. Alcohol use by teens is related to traffic crashes, crime, teenage pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases, suicides, drownings, and poor performance in school.Teenage drinking also has a direct economic effect on our communities; the costs of law enforcement, health care, education, treatment, and other services increase as resources are diverted to attend to the painful and often tragic consequences of teenage drinking. What can be done? In recent years many organizations have attempted to identify innovative and effective methods to reduce underage drinking. Some approaches have focused on educating young people about the dangers of drinki ng and equipping them with the knowledge and skills to make responsible choices.Other approaches have tried to strengthen the relationships young people have with family, peers, teachers and others. Still others have focused on the array of adult institutions that manufacture, distribute, sell, provide, market, promote, and regulate alcohol. No single approach will entirely solve the problem. But each approach, wisely implemented and used in combination with other promising strategies, may reduce the scope of the problem and limit the damage to America’s next generation.Current research shows that effective and regular compliance checks helps decrease alcohol sales to minors; helps reduce underage drinking; helps reduce traffic crashes, violence, and other health problems associated with alcohol; and helps build healthier and safer communities. This manual is designed for public officials, law enforcement officers, and alcohol-regulation agents as a practical guide for develo ping and implementing a compliance check system for establishments that sell or serve alcohol.Extensive research in recent years indicates that while many alcohol establishments act responsibly in refusing sales to underage buyers, a significant number of establishments continue to sell to people under the legal drinking age of 21. index 1. Introduction 2. Alcoholism Its Usage And Definition 3. What Is Alcoholism 4. Characteristics 5. Effects 6. Problems 7. Treatment 8. Measures 9. Conclusion Introduction Alcohol has been used for centuries in social, medical, cultural, and religious settings. Most Americans believe alcohol can be used responsibly by adults for social and religious purposes.However, alcohol can also be used to excess resulting in health, social, legal, and other problems. Students may receive conflicting messages about alcohol from the news media, school, their friends, and their parents. On the one hand, they hear that moderate alcohol use is acceptable, and in som e instances may actually be good for your health; on the other hand, they are told that alcohol is a drug that requires abstinence until age 21. In addition, advertisements and media images often present alcohol as a means to success and an enjoyable life.These conflicting messages, combined with misunderstandings and misinformation, do not help students make responsible decisions about alcohol use. Statistics indicate that many adolescents begin consuming alcohol at an early age. In 1997, 26 percent of eighth graders, 40 percent of 10th graders, and 51 percent of 12th graders reported consuming alcohol within the month prior to the survey. 43 In addition, 16 percent of eighth graders reported binge drinking within the two weeks leading up to the survey. The effects of adolescent drinking involve both health- and safety-related problems, including auto crashes, domestic violence, and suicide.Alcohol abuse among teenagers may also be related to behavioral problems linked to impulsive ness and sensation seeking. 55 Youth alcohol-use data indicate that the earlier an individual begins drinking, the greater his or her risk of developing alcohol-use problems in the future. Individuals who begin drinking before age 15 are four times more likely to develop alcohol dependence during their lifetimes than are those who begin drinking at age â€Å"The earlier an individual begins drinking, the greater his or her risk of developing alcohol-related problems in the future. Dr. Enoch Gordis, former Director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), has written, â€Å"Although alcohol is sometimes referred to as a ‘gateway drug’ for youth because its use often precedes the use of other illicit substances, this terminology is counterproductive; youth drinking requires significant attention, not because of what it leads to, but because of the extensive human and economic impact of alcohol use by this vulnerable population. 43 The purpose o f this supplement is to present students with the opportunity to learn about the science underlying the effects of alcohol on human biology and behavior through a series of f alcohol on human biology and behavior through a series of inquiry-based classroom lessons. Young people are natural scientists. They have a curiosity about the world around them and about themselves as individuals. Since they have little in the way of life experiences, many young people tend to view themselves as nearly invincible.Consequently, when adults caution them against engaging in risky behaviors such as drinking alcohol, some don’t listen. They feel that such warnings aren’t for them and apply only to those less grown up than themselves. The aim of this supplement is to give students the opportunity to construct their own understanding about alcohol and its attendant risks. In addition, the inquiry-based lessons are designed to help students hone their critical-thinking skills. With enhan ced understanding and skills, they will be better prepared to make informed decisions about real-life situations involving alcohol use.Alcohol Use, Abuse, and Alcoholism: Definitions †Any alcohol use by underage youth is considered to be alcohol abuse. † In any discussion of alcohol use, it is crucial to begin with a clear understanding of terms. For the purposes of this module, we define alcohol use by adults as the consumption of alcohol for social or religious purposes without demonstrating the characteristics of alcohol abuse or alcoholism Alcohol abuse is defined as the continued use of alcohol despite the development of social, legal, or health problems.It is important to note that any alcohol use by underage youth is considered to be alcohol abuse. What is alcoholism? As defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, alcoholism (alcohol dependence) is a negative pattern of alcohol use leading to a number of problems, which may include needin g more alcohol to get intoxicated (tolerance), difficulties that occur when the effects of alcohol wear off (withdrawal), using more alcohol or for longer time than intended, and other life problems because of the use of alcohol. Five stages of alcohol and drug use have been identified.The first stage is described as access to alcohol rather than use of alcohol, tobacco, inhalants, or other drugs. In that stage, minimizing the risk factors that make a teenager more vulnerable to using alcohol are an issue. The second stage of alcohol and other drug use ranges from experimentation or occasional use to regular weekly use of alcohol, tobacco, inhalants, or other drugs. The third stage is characterized by youths further increasing the frequency of alcohol use and/or using alcohol and other drugs on a regular basis. This stage may also include the teenager either buying drugs or stealing to get drugs.In the fourth stage of alcohol and drug use, adolescents have established regular usage, have become preoccupied with getting intoxicated (â€Å"high†) and have developed problems in their social, educational, vocational, or family life as a result of using the substance. The final and most serious fifth stage of alcohol or other drug use is defined by the youth only feeling normal when they are using. During this stage, risk-taking behaviors like stealing, engaging in physical fights, or driving while intoxicated increase, and they become most vulnerable to having suicidal thoughtsCharacteristics of Alcohol| * failing to fulfill major work, school, or home responsibilities | * drinking in situations that are potentially dangerous, such as driving a car or operating heavy machinery * psychiatric disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression | * family environments with favorable attitudes about drinking and lack of support | * acceptance of drinking by peers | * child abuse and trauma | How much alcohol do teens use? Alcohol is the mo st frequently used drug by teenagers in the United States.About half of junior high and senior high school students drink alcohol on a monthly basis, and 14% of teens have been intoxicated at least once in the past year. Nearly 8% of teens who drink say they drink at least five or more alcoholic drinks in a row (binge drink). dangerous effects of alcohol use on teens. Just a few of the many dangerous effects of alcohol use in teens include the following: * Alcohol decreases teens' ability to pay attention. * Teens who have experienced alcohol withdrawal tend to have difficulties with memory. * In contrast to adults, teens tend to abuse alcohol with other substances, usually marijuana. Male teens who drink heavily tend to complete fewer years of education compared to male teens who do not. * The younger a person is when they begin drinking, the more likely they are to develop a problem with alcohol. * Each year, almost 2,000 people under the age of 21 years die in car crashes in whic h underage drinking is involved. Alcohol is involved in nearly half of all violent deaths involving teens. * More than three times the number of eighth-grade girls who drink heavily said they have attempted suicide compared to girls in that grade who do not drink. Intoxication is associated with suicide attempts using more lethal methods, and positive blood alcohol levels are often found in people who complete suicide. * Teens who drink are more likely to engage in sexual activity, have unprotected sex, have sex with a stranger, or be the victim or perpetrator of a sexual assault. * Excess alcohol use can cause or mask other emotional problems, like anxiety or depression. * Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs, like marijuana, cocaine, or heroin. causes and risk factors of teen alcoholism?Family risk factors for teenagers developing drinking problems include low levels of parent supervision or communication, family conflicts, inconsistent or severe parental discipli ne, and a family history of alcohol or drug abuse. Individual risk factors include problems managing impulses, emotional instability, thrill-seeking behaviors, and perceiving the risk of using alcohol to be low. Girls who drink, as well as teens who begin drinking prior to 14 years of age and those whose mothers have drinking problems, are more likely to develop alcoholism.Teen risk factors for alcoholism differ a bit between the 14- to 16-year-old and 16- to 18-year-old age groups, in that 16- to 18-year-olds tend to be less likely to drink in excess when they have a close relationship with their mothers. Consequences of Adolescent Alcohol UseDrinking and Driving. Of the nearly 8,000 drivers ages 15-20 involved in fatal crashes in 1995, 20 percent had blood alcohol concentrations above zero (58). For more information about young drivers' increased crash risk and the factors that contribute to this risk, see Alcohol Alert No. 1: Drinking and Driving (59). Sexual Behavior. Surveys of adolescents suggest that alcohol use is associated with risky sexual behavior and increased vulnerability to coercive sexual activity. Among adolescents surveyed in New Zealand, alcohol misuse was significantly associated with unprotected intercourse and sexual activity before age 16 (60). Forty-four percent of sexually active Massachusetts teenagers said they were more likely to have sexual intercourse if they had been drinking, and 17 percent said they were less likely to use condoms after drinking (61).Risky Behavior and Victimization. Survey results from a nationally representative sample of 8th and 10th graders indicated that alcohol use was significantly associated with both risky behavior and victimization and that this relationship was strongest among the 8th-grade males, compared with other students (62). Puberty and Bone Growth. High doses of alcohol have been found to delay puberty in female (63) and male rats (64), and large quantities of alcohol consumed by young rats can slow bone growth and result in weaker bones (65).However, the implications of these findings for young people are not clear. Prevention of Adolescent Alcohol Use Measures to prevent adolescent alcohol use include policy interventions and community and educational programs. Alcohol Alert No. 34: Preventing Alcohol Abuse and Related Problems (66) covers these topics in detail. See the NationalfInjury and Social Consequences Underage alcohol use is more likely to kill young people than all illegal drugs combined (5,6). Some of the most serious and widespread alcohol–related problems among adolescents are discussed below.Drinking and Driving. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death among youth ages 15 to 20 (8). Adolescents already are at increased risk through their relative lack of driving experience (9), and drivers younger than 21 are more susceptible than older drivers to the alcohol–induced impairment of driving skills (4,9). The rate of fatal crashe s among alcohol–involved drivers between 16 and 20 years old is more than twice the rate for alcohol–involved drivers 21 and older (10).Suicide. Alcohol use interacts with conditions such as depression and stress to contribute to suicide, the third leading cause of death among people between the ages of 14 and 25 (11,12). In one study, 37 percent of eighth grade females who drank heavily reported  attempting suicide, compared with 11 percent who did not drink (13). Sexual Assault. Sexual assault, including rape, occurs most commonly among women in late adolescence and early adulthood, usually within the context of a date (14).In one survey, approximately 10 percent of female high school students reported having been raped (5). Research suggests that alcohol use by the offender, the victim, or both, increases the likelihood  of sexual assault by a male acquaintance (15). High–Risk Sex. Research has associated adolescent alcohol use with high–risk sex ( for example, having multiple sexual partners and failing to use condoms). The consequences of high–risk sex also are common in this age group, particularly unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS (5).According to a recent study, the link between high–risk sex and drinking is affected by the quantity of alcohol consumed. The probability of sexual intercourse is increased by drinking amounts of alcohol sufficient to impair judgment, but decreased by drinking heavier amounts that result in feelings of nausea, passing out, or mental confusion (16). Alcohol’s Effects on the Brain Adolescence is the transition between childhood and adulthood. During this time, significant changes occur in the body, including rapid hormonal alterations and the formation of new networks in the brain .Adolescence is also a time of trying new experiences and activities that emphasize socializing with peers, and conforming to peer–group standards . T hese new activities may place young people at particular risk for initiating and continuing alcohol consumption. Exposing the brain to alcohol during this period may interrupt key processes of brain development, possibly leading to mild cognitive impairment as well as to further escalation of drinking. Subtle alcohol–induced adolescent learning impairments could affect academic and occupational achievement .In one study, Brown and colleagues evaluated short–term memory skills in alcohol–dependent and nondependent adolescents ages 15 to 16. The alcohol–dependent youth had greater difficulty remembering words and simple geometric designs after a 10–minute interval. In this and similar studies memory problems were most common among adolescents in treatment who had experienced alcohol withdrawal symptoms . The emergence of withdrawal symptoms generally indicates an established pattern of heavy drinking.Their appearance at a young age underscores the ne ed for early intervention to prevent and treat underage drinking. Although the prevalence of high–risk drinking declines after early adulthood , alcohol–induced brain damage may persist. Memory impairment has been found in adult rats exposed to alcohol during adolescence . In addition, sophisticated imaging techniques revealed structural differences in the brains of 17–year–old adolescents who displayed alcohol–induced intellectual and behavioral impairment.Specifically, the hippocampus—a part of the brain important for learning and memory—was smaller in alcohol–dependent study participants  than it was in nondependent participants . Adolescents who began drinking at an earlier age had proportionately smaller hippocampal volumes compared with those who began later , suggesting that the differences in size were alcohol induced. Alcohol Alert From NIAAA Despite a minimum legal drinking age of 21, many young people in the United States consume alcohol. Some abuse alcohol by drinking frequently or by binge drinking–often defined as having five or more drinks* in a row.A minority of youth may meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria for alcohol dependence (1,2). The progression of drinking from use to abuse to dependence is associated with biological and psychosocial factors. This Alcohol Alert examines some of these factors that put youth at risk for drinking and for alcohol-related problems and considers some of the consequences of their drinking. Prevalence of Youth Drinking Thirteen- to fifteen-year-olds are at high risk to begin drinking (3).According to results of an annual survey of students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades, 26 percent of 8th graders, 40 percent of 10th graders, and 51 percent of 12th graders reported drinking alcohol within the past month (4). Binge drinking at least once during the 2 weeks before the survey was reported by 16 percent of 8th graders, 25 percent of 10th graders, and 30 percent of 12th graders. Males report higher rates of daily drinking and binge drinking than females, but these differences are diminishing (3).White students report the highest levels of drinking, blacks report the lowest, and Hispanics fall between the two (3). A survey focusing on the alcohol-related problems experienced by 4,390 high school seniors and dropouts found that within the preceding year, approximately 80 percent reported either getting â€Å"drunk,† binge drinking, or drinking and driving. More than half said that drinking had caused them to feel sick, miss school or work, get arrested, or have a car crash (5). Some adolescents who drink later abuse alcohol and may develop alcoholism.Although these conditions are defined for adults in the DSM, research suggests that separate diagnostic criteria may be needed for youth (6). Drinking and Adolescent Development While drinking may be a singular problem b ehavior for some, research suggests that for others it may be an expression of general adolescent turmoil that includes other problem behaviors and that these behaviors are linked to unconventionality, impulsiveness, and sensation seeking (7-11). Binge drinking, often beginning around age 13, tends to increase during adolescence, peak in young adulthood (ages 18-22), then gradually decrease.In a 1994 national survey, binge drinking was reported by 28 percent of high school seniors, 41 percent of 21- to 22-year-olds, but only 25 percent of 31- to 32-year-olds (3,12). Individuals who increase their binge drinking from age 18 to 24 and those who consistently binge drink at least once a week during this period may have problems attaining the goals typical of the transition from adolescence to young adulthood (e. g. , marriage, educational attainment, employment, and financial independence) (13). Risk Factors for Adolescent Alcohol Use, Abuse, and Dependence Genetic Risk Factors.Animal s tudies (14) and studies of twins and adoptees demonstrate that genetic factors influence an individual's vulnerability to alcoholism (15,16). Children of alcoholics are significantly more likely than children of nonalcoholics to initiate drinking during adolescence (17) and to develop alcoholism (18), but the relative influences of environment and genetics have not been determined and vary among people. Biological Markers. Brain waves elicited in response to specific stimuli (e. g. , a light or sound) provide measures of brain activity that predict risk for alcoholism.P300, a wave that occurs about 300 milliseconds after a stimulus, is most frequently used in this research. A low P300 amplitude has been demonstrated in individuals with increased risk for alcoholism, especially sons of alcoholic fathers (19,20). P300 measures among 36 preadolescent boys were able to predict alcohol and other drug (AOD) use 4 years later, at an average age of 16 (21). Childhood Behavior. Children clas sified as â€Å"undercontrolled† (i. e. , impulsive, restless, and distractible) at age 3 were twice as likely as those who were â€Å"inhibited† or â€Å"well-adjusted† to be diagnosed with alcohol dependence at age 21 (22).Aggressiveness in children as young as ages 5-10 has been found to predict AOD use in adolescence (23,24). Childhood antisocial behavior is associated with alcohol-related problems in adolescence (24-27) and alcohol abuse or dependence in adulthood (28,29). Psychiatric Disorders. Among 12- to 16-year-olds, regular alcohol use has been significantly associated with conduct disorder; in one study, adolescents who reported higher levels of drinking were more likely to have conduct disorder (30,31).Six-year-old to seventeen-year-old boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were also found to have weak social relationships had significantly higher rates of alcohol abuse and dependence 4 years later, compared with ADHD boys wi thout social deficiencies and boys without ADHD (32). Whether anxiety and depression lead to or are consequences of alcohol abuse is unresolved. In a study of college freshmen, a DSM-III diagnosis of alcohol abuse or dependence was twice as likely among those with anxiety disorder as those without this disorder .In another study, college students diagnosed with alcohol abuse were almost four times as likely as students without alcohol abuse to have a major depressive disorder . In most of these cases, depression preceded alcohol abuse. In a study of adolescents in residential treatment for AOD dependence, 25 percent met the DSM-III-R criteria for depression, three times the rate reported for controls. In 43 percent of these cases, the onset of AOD dependence preceded the depression; in 35 percent, the depression occurred first; and in 22 percent, the disorders occurred simultaneously . Suicidal Behavior.Alcohol use among adolescents has been associated with considering, planning, at tempting, and completing suicide . In one study, 37 percent of eighth-grade females who drank heavily reported attempting suicide, compared with 11 percent who did not drink . Research does not indicate whether drinking causes suicidal behavior, only that the two behaviors are correlated. Psychosocial Risk Factors Parenting, Family Environment, and Peers. Parents' drinking behavior and favorable attitudes about drinking have been positively associated with adolescents' initiating and continuing drinking.Early initiation of drinking has been identified as an important risk factor for later alcohol-related problems . Children who were warned about alcohol by their parents and children who reported being closer to their parents were less likely to start drinking . Lack of parental support, monitoring, and communication have been significantly related to frequency of drinking , heavy drinking, and drunkenness among adolescents . Harsh, inconsistent discipline and hostility or rejection toward children have also been found to significantly predict adolescent drinking and alcohol-related problems .Peer drinking and peer acceptance of drinking have been associated with adolescent drinking . While both peer influences and parental influences are important, their relative impact on adolescent drinking is unclear. Expectancies. Positive alcohol-related expectancies have been identified as risk factors for adolescent drinking. Positive expectancies about alcohol have been found to increase with age (50) and to predict the onset of drinking and problem drinking among adolescents (51-53). Trauma. Child abuse and other traumas have been proposed as risk factors for subsequent alcohol problems.Adolescents in treatment for alcohol abuse or dependence reported higher rates of physical abuse, sexual abuse, violent victimization, witnessing violence, and other traumas compared with controls (54). The adolescents in treatment were at least 6 times more likely than controls to hav e ever been abused physically and at least 18 times more likely to have ever been abused sexually. In most cases, the physical or sexual abuse preceded the alcohol use. Thirteen percent of the alcohol dependent adolescents had experienced posttraumatic stress disorder, compared with 10 percent of those who abused alcohol and 1 percent of controls.Advertising. Research on the effects of alcohol advertising on adolescent alcohol-related beliefs and behaviors has been limited . While earlier studies measured the effects of exposure to advertising , more recent research has assessed the effects of alcohol advertising awareness on intentions to drink. In a study of fifth- and sixth-grade students' awareness, measured by the ability to identify products in commercials with the product name blocked out, awareness had a small but statistically significant relationship to positive expectancies about alcohol and to intention to drink as adults .This suggests that alcohol advertising may influ ence adolescents to be more favorably predisposed to drinking . symptoms and signs of alcohol intoxicationSigns that indicate a person is intoxicated include the smell of alcohol on their breath or skin, glazed or bloodshot eyes, the person being unusually passive or argumentative, and/or deterioration in the person's appearance or hygiene.Other symptoms of intoxication include flushed skin and memory lossSome of the most common symptoms of alcoho l abuse in teenagers include lying, making excuses, breaking curfew, staying in their room, becoming verbally or physically abusive toward others, having items in their possession that are connected to alcohol use (paraphernalia), the smell of alcohol on their breath or body, mood swings, stealing, and changes in friends. The Link Between Early Alcohol Use and Alcohol Dependence Early alcohol use may have long–lasting consequences.People who begin drinking before age 15 are four times more likely to develop alcohol dependence at som e time in their lives compared with those who have their first drink at age 20 or older . It is not clear whether starting to drink at an early age actually causes alcoholism or whether it simply indicates an existing vulnerability to alcohol use disorders . For example, both early drinking and alcoholism have been linked to personality characteristics such as strong tendencies to act impulsively and to seek out new experiences and sensations .Some evidence indicates that genetic factors may contribute to the relationship between early drinking and subsequent alcoholism . Environmental factors may also be involved, especially in alcoholic families, where children may start drinking earlier because of easier access to alcohol in the home, family acceptance of drinking, and lack of parental monitoring . Prevention and Treatment The immediate and long–term risks associated with adolescent alcohol use underscore the need for effective prevention and treatment programs.Research on the personal, social, and environmental factors that contribute to the initiation and escalation of drinking is essential for the development of such programs. It should be noted that preventing  and identifying alcohol use disorders in youth require different screening, assessment, and treatment approaches than those used for adults. For example, although relapse rates following alcoholism treatment are similar for both adults and adolescents, social factors such as peer pressure play a much larger role in relapse among adolescents .Personal factors such as childhood behavior problems or a family history of alcohol use disorders can help to identify high–risk youth and may suggest direction for interventions. Evidence suggests that the most reliable predictor of a youth’s drinking behavior is the drinking  behavior of his or her friends . Many research–based interventions target the child’s relevant behavioral skills, such as his or her ability to r eact appropriately to peer pressure to drink, as well as his or her knowledge, attitudes, and intentions regarding alcohol use .Positive beliefs about alcohol’s effects and the social acceptability of drinking encourage the adolescent to begin and continue drinking. However, youth often overestimate how much their peers drink and how positive their peers’ attitudes are toward drinking. Consequently, most prevention programs include social norms education, which uses survey data to counter students’ misperceptions of their peers’ drinking practices and attitudes about alcohol .Family factors, such as parent–child relationships, discipline methods, communication, monitoring and supervision, and parental involvement, also exert a significant influence on youthful alcohol use . Accordingly, family–based prevention programs for youth have been developed—for example, Iowa’s Strengthening Families Program, which significantly delayed initiation of alcohol use by improving parenting skills and family bonding . The beneficial effects of this program on student alcohol involvement were still evident 4 years after the intervention . Some school–based programs are aimed at adolescents who have already begun drinking.Preliminary research also has found promise in high school–based motivational programs that encourage self–change in problem drinkers (30). Policy and Community StrategiesAnother important factor in underage drinking is availability, that is, the degree of effort required to obtain alcohol, as determined by geographic, economic, and social factors (40,35). Consequently, interventions aimed at the individual must be supplemented by policy changes to help reduce youth access to alcohol and decrease the harmful consequences of established drinking (35).For example, raising the minimum legal drinking age in all States to 21 saved an estimated 20,000 lives between 1975 and 2000 (8). In add ition, all States now have zero–tolerance laws, which set the legal blood alcohol limit for drivers younger than age 21 at 0. 00 or 0. 02 percent (41). This policy has been associated with a 20–percent decline in the proportion of single–vehicle, nighttime fatal crashes among drivers younger than age 21 (42,43). The drinking and driving laws described above were implemented in the absence of an accompanying increase in existing law enforcement levels.The effectiveness of such measures is enhanced by integrating them into community–based strategies that involve the cooperation of local government agencies, the law enforcement community, business leaders,  and grassroots organizations (35). Communities Mobilizing for Change on Alcohol (CMCA) is an example of a community–wide program that focused on policy changes to reduce youth access to commercial and social sources of alcohol (44,35). Communities that adopted the program experienced significantl y fewer arrests for drinking and driving among youth ages 18 to 20 than did neighboring communities (45).Comprehensive Interventions. Project Northland is an example of a successful comprehensive intervention that incorporated family, school, and community components to prevent or reduce alcohol use among adolescents. To determine the program’s effectiveness, researchers began testing the students in grade six; and, after 3 years, the prevalence of alcohol use by eighth graders was lower in intervention communities than in comparison sites, and especially among students who had not yet started drinking when the program began (46).During the next 2 years, interventions were only minimal, and the differences in the measures of alcohol use between the two groups of students disappeared. However, resumption of Project Northland activities in grades 11 and 12 had a significant positive effect on the students’ tendency to avoid alcohol use and binge drinking. Taken together, these results show the effectiveness of continued, age–appropriate prevention activities for delaying or reducing underage drinking (47).Underage Drinking—A Commentary by NIAAA Director Ting–Kai Li, M. D. The immediate and long–term risks associated with adolescent alcohol use underscore the need for effective prevention and treatment programs. Research toward those ends is a top priority at NIAAA. Studies have revealed genetic, biologic, developmental, and environmental influences on underage drinking. Scientists have found that variability is a crucial aspect of alcohol problems across all age groups and thus is a key consideration in alcohol research.For example, there is a three– to fourfold between–individual variation in the rate of absorption, distribution, and elimination of alcohol (pharmacokinetics) and a two– to threefold between–individual variation in the sensitivity of the brain to the effects of a given concentr ation of alcohol (pharmacodynamics). Understanding the underlying causes of this variability, both genetic and nongenetic, should provide insights into underage drinking and binge–drinking patterns.Through prevention and intervention strategies directed at the individual, family, school, and community, we aim to provide knowledge and change belief systems and social norms to reinforce the message that underage alcohol use is unacceptable. We also aim to enhance young peoples’ self–esteem, self–motivation, and identity formation to enable them to take responsibility for their own health by making informed, deliberate, and healthy choices regarding alcohol use.Various intervention tools have brought about positive behavioral change with regard to underage drinking. Further studies will follow cohorts of young people from childhood through the college years, at different locations and in different settings, to determine  whether these interventions are end uring and broadly applicable. Finding lasting solutions to such an entrenched problem will not be easy, but we are confident that diligent research efforts will meet this urgent challenge. Alcohol and the Family * Alcoholism is a disease of the family.Not only is there a significant genetic component that is passed from generation to generation, but the drinking problems of a single family member affect all other family members. The family environment and genetics can perpetuate a vicious and destructive cycle. * Many marriages break up over a husband’s or wife’s drinking. Domestic violence typically erupts when one or both spouses have been drinking, and drinking makes domestic violence more dangerous. * Families play a critical role in recovery from alcoholism. They can be instrumental in encouraging a family member with alcoholism to seek treatment.Strong family support also increases the chances for successful recovery. Alcoholism and Problem Drinking Pervasive in Family Life * More than half of adults have a close family member who has had alcoholism or is still dealing with alcoholism. * Approximately one in four children younger than 18 is exposed to alcoholism or problem drinking in the family. A Factor in Many Serious Family Problems * Separated and divorced men and women are three times as likely to say their spouse was alcoholic or had a drinking problem than men and women who are still married. Some 75 percent of husbands or wives who abuse their spouses have been drinking prior to or at the time of the abuse. * Women who have heavy drinking husbands or partners are at higher risk for developing their own drinking problems. * Each year between 1,200 and 8,800 babies are born with the physical signs and intellectual disabilities associated with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), and thousands more experience the somewhat lesser disabilities of fetal alcohol effects. FAS is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation in the United St ates. Children of alcoholics are at high risk for developing problems with alcohol and other drugs; they often do poorly at school, live with pervasive tension and stress, have high levels of anxiety and depression and experience coping problems. Underage Drinking Challenges American Youth * First use of alcohol typically begins around age 13. By their senior year, 64 percent of high school students say they have been drunk at least once; 33 percent say they have been drunk in the past month. Among teenagers between the ages of 12 and 17 who say they drink heavily (five or more drinks on five or more occasions in the past month); 77 percent had at least one serious problem related to drinking in the past year; 63 percent had built up tolerance to the effects of alcohol; 20 percent reported psychological problems related to their drinking; 12 percent reported health problems related to their drinking. * Teenagers who drink heavily are more likely to cut class or skip school, perform poorly in school, take sexual risks, and commit suicide.Heavy drinking increases the likelihood of delinquent and violent behavior including running away from home, fighting, vandalizing property, stealing and getting arrested. * Visit the Alcohol Cost Calculator for Kids1 to find out more about serious alcohol problems among youth. Attitudes in the Home Influence Youth Drinking * Even in families where alcoholism isn’t present, permissive attitudes about alcohol can have a profound impact on youth. Though far more kids drink than use illicit rugs, parents are more likely to excuse getting drunk as a â€Å"rite of passage. † Unless a car is involved, some just don’t take it seriously. * Parents who drink and who have favorable attitudes about alcohol encourage children to start drinking and to keep drinking. * Drinking by older siblings can influence the alcohol use of younger siblings, particularly for same-sex siblings. Teens' Serious Alcohol Problems Recent s tudies agree: most young people experiment with alcohol.By the time they are seniors in high school, 58 percent report they have been drunk 1 even though they can't drink legally until they are 21. Their drinking typically accelerates when they go away to college where 40 percent of students say that they binge on alcohol (for young men this means drinking five or more drinks in a row; for young women, four or more drinks in a row). 2Most of the young people who get drunk or binge gradually outgrow this dangerous behavior as they become adults with jobs and family responsibilities.If they're lucky, they may simply miss a class or two because of a hangover. Others experience more serious problems that alter their lives in significant ways: premature death, injury, smoking and using illicit drugs, academic failure, arrest, unplanned pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease all are associated with drinking among young people. Some 3 million young Americans will develop an serious alc ohol problem that will significantly increase their risk for experiencing one of these life altering problems.According to the federal government, compared to their peers without an alcohol drug use disorder, young people with drinking problems: * require emergency room medical care 47 percent more often * miss two more weeks of school * are 10 times more likely to be diagnosed with another drug use disorder * are 10 times more likely to drive under the influence of alcohol and/or other drugs * are four times more likely to be arrested or booked for breaking the law * are two and a half times as likely to run away or sleep on the streets Alcohol Interferes With Maturation As serious as these problems are — for the individuals who experience them and for their families and communities — they fail to convey how alcohol problems interfere with young people's bodies and minds, which haven't yet had a chance to fully mature. erious alcohol problems stunt emotional developme nt by masking the stress and anxiety that can be a normal part of adolescence, robbing young people of the opportunity to develop the coping skills they will need to succeed later in life. In short, even if they escape serious physical harm, alcohol problems prevent young people from achieving their full potential as adults in ways that aren't easily quantified. Young people with serious alcohol problems — many of whom also have mental health disorders that make their drinking and other drug use much more problematic — are among the most vulnerable in our society. They need treatment. But the vast majority — 83 percent, on average — isn't getting it, and among those who do, only 25 percent get enough. The benefits of treatment for young people, as well as society, are enormous. Recent clinical research proves that effective treatment developed specifically for adolescents can help them get their lives back on track through: * considerable reductions in th eir use of alcohol and marijuana one year after treatment * significantly fewer problems associated with their drinking and other drug use * less criminal activity * improved school performance, including better grades and attendance * healthier psychological outcomes, including higher self-esteem, decreased hostility and fewer suicidal thoughts What Are Serious Alcohol Problems? lcohol poisoningAlcohol poisoning is the potentially fatal result of drinking excessive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. It is caused by alcohol slowing down the body's functions (for example, breathing, heart rate, and gag reflex), thereby potentially leading to choking, coma, stopped breathing, stopped heart, and death. Treatment involves getting the person to the hospital immediately so he or she can be closely watched by medical professionals, given oxygen and fluids, and so that other measures can be taken in order to prevent choking, as well as stopped breathing or heartbeatSerious alcoho l problems fall into two categories: alcohol dependence and alcohol abuse. Together, these behaviors are known among experts as alcohol use disorders.The American Psychiatric Association (APA) publishes standardized criteria for diagnosing each of these conditions according to the presence of certain symptoms. This calculator uses these criteria2 to estimate how many young people in the U. S. need treatment. However, the APA developed these criteria for adults, not adolescents, which means they may miss many young people who would benefit from an intervention of some kind. Though serious alcohol problems can develop within a year or two after a young person has begun drinking,4 alcohol-related medical problems and withdrawal syndrome, which take years to develop, are symptoms that are much more likely to be found among adults.Nor do these criteria address factors unique to young people, whose bodies and minds continue to undergo profound changes throughout adolescence. As a result, some researchers have suggested that serious alcohol problems should be assessed more broadly among young people to permit earlier and more targeted interventions along a continuum3 facilitated by more widespread use of screening. These assessments would be multidimensional and take a number of other factors into consideration, including: Age Example: A 13-year-old who is binge drinking and smoking marijuana probably signals a more immediate need for intervention than an 18-year-old whose similar behavior, while dangerous and illegal, may be more typical of his age group.The amount, frequency and context of alcohol and other drug use Example: Any young person who drinks every day before going to school or during the school day. The seriousness and nature of the problems being experienced by a young person Example: A young person who fails a grade, runs away from home or comes into contact with the juvenile justice system. The presence of a mental health problem(see following section )A family history of addiction Example: Having a parent with an alcohol use disorder greatly increases the chances that an individual will develop one at some point in their life. Researchers have established that the risk for developing an alcohol use disorder is approximately 50 to 60 percent genetic. Who Is at Risk?Researchers estimate that people who begin drinking before the age of 15 are four times more likely to develop an serious alcohol problem later in life than those who wait until they are 21. 5 Less well understood, however, is the issue of who will develop an alcohol problem while they are still in adolescence, although scientists have identified several risk factors. Many young people with alcohol problems also have a mental health, or co-occurring, disorder. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, estimates range from 41 to 65 percent. 6 As a result, these young people are at especially high risk for two of the most serious problems associated with drinking during adolescence: violence and suicide. Children with conduct disorders — also known as antisocial disorders and characterized by rule-breaking behavior and a disregard for the rights of others — are at extremely high risk for developing an serious alcohol problem during adolescence. Thrill-seeking is common among children with conduct disorder and may explain why they begin drinking at an early age. Researchers also believe that alcohol's role in loosening inhibitions may encourage such adolescents to â€Å"act out† and get them in more serious trouble because of their drinking. Other researchers suggest serious alcohol problems and conduct disorders co-occur because of shared risk factors, not because one influences the other. 8Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder — also known as negative-affect disorders — are also common among adolescents with serious alcohol problems, especially young women.Researchers believe that both of these con ditions often occur as a result of physical or sexual abuse during childhood and that young people who have been (or are being) victimized drink to self-medicate. 9 As with conduct disorders, however, exactly how one influences the other isn't known. Because alcohol is a depressant, its use can contribute to depression. Studies also have shown drinking can increase the likelihood of sexual victimization that, in turn, can lead to a negative-affect disorder. TreatmentYoung people usually don't get treatment for alcohol and other drug use disorders until their drinking has gotten them in trouble with the law.In fact, 44 percent of young people in treatment have been referred by the criminal justice system. Other sources of referral include: * School/Community Agency (22%) * Self/Family (17%) * Other Substance Abuse Treatment Agency (5%) * Other Health Care Provider (5%) * Other (16%) The nation's health care system doesn't identify or treat young people with alcohol and other drug use problems any better than it does adults. Because of longstanding relationships with their young patients, pediatricians and family practice physicians are ideally positioned to observe the changes in behavior and health that occur as a result of drinking and drug use.But while the American Medical Association recommends that health professionals ask their young patients about their alcohol and drug use on an annual basis, fewer than 50 percent of physicians screen these patients for this purpose. 13Unique Treatment Needs Treatment for alcohol and other drug use disorders among young people has advanced considerably in the past several years. Within the next year or two, clinicians will be able to choose among a dozen therapies whose effectiveness and cost benefits have been established by research. 14 This progress has been stimulated in part by necessity: during the 1990s, the number of young people seeking drug treatment rose by 50 percent. 15Researchers learned that treating you ng people in programs for adults didn't work. In some cases, it may even have caused their drug use to escalate once they were discharged. 6Acknowledging the considerable differences between adolescent and adult drug use disorders was the first step in developing age appropriate treatment: * The patterns of drug use among young people differ: they drink more alcohol and smoke more marijuana than adults. They also are more likely to binge drink or get high whenever an opportunity arises. * Young people have higher rates of mental health disorders and get into trouble more often than adults. They require more careful assessment for mental health disorders which, if present, must be treated appropriately. * Young people are increasingly influenced by their peers and shaped by the pressures encountered in social institutions such as school and the criminal justice and welfare systems. These influences and pressures contribute not only to the development of serious alcohol problems, but also have a profound impact on treatment. The gains young people make during treatment may be undercut when they are return to an unhealthy atmosphere at home, in their neighborhoods or at school. They do not always have access to age-appropriate support groups. This explains why they have higher relapse rates than adults and typically require three or four treatment episodes before achieving recovery. Problem Drinking Affects School Performance How does problem drinking affect young people's schooling? In some cases the linkage between problem drinking and academic performance is profound. Drinking can affect the biological development of young people as well as their school-related achievement and behavior. Serious alcohol use among youth has significant neurological consequences.Alcohol damages areas of the brain responsible for learning and memory, verbal skills and visual-spatial cognition. 1, 2 Diagnosticians often find that these skills in adolescents who drink are deficient in comparison to those who aren't drinking. How can parents prevent alcohol use? Clear communication by parents about the negative effects of alcohol, as well as about their expectations regarding drug use, have been found to significantly decrease alcohol use in teens. Adequate parental supervision has also been found to be a deterrent to alcohol use in youth. Alcohol, and other drug use, has been found to occur most often between the hours of 3 p. m. and 6 p. m. immediately after school and prior to parents' arrival at home from work. Teen participation in extracurricular activities has therefore been revealed to be an important measure in preventing use of alcohol in this age group. Parents can also help educate teens about appropriate coping and stress-management strategies. For example, 15- to 16-year-olds who use religion to cope with stress tend to use drugs significantly less often and have less problems as a result of drinking than their peers who do not use religion to cop e. What is the treatment for alcohol intoxicationReplacing fluids that are lost as a result of the increased urination associated with drinking is often used to treat alcohol intoxication.Doctors frequently use fluids that contain sugars for that purpose. There are few medications that are considered effective in treating alcoholism. Zofran (ondansetron) has been found to be effective in treating alcoholism in people whose problem drinking began before they were 25 years old. Naltrexone (Trexan, ReVia, or Vivitrol) has also been found effective in managing alcoholism. Naltrexone is the most frequently used medication in treating alcoholism. It decreases the alcoholic's cravings for alcohol by blocking the body's euphoric (â€Å"high†) response to it. Naltrexone is either taken by mouth on a daily basis or through monthly injections.Disulfiram (Antabuse) is prescribed for about 9% of alcoholics. It decreases the alcoholic's craving for the substance by producing a negative rea ction to drinking. Acamprosate (Campral) works by decreasing cravings for alcohol in those who have stopped drinking. However, none of these medications have been specifically approved to treat alcoholism in people less than 18 years of age. Some research indicates that psychiatric medications like lithium and sertraline (Zoloft) may be useful in decreasing alcohol use in teens who have another mental-health disorder in addition to alcohol abuse. There are numerous individual treatments for alcoholism in teens.Relapse prevention uses methods for recognizing and amending problem behaviors. Individualized drug counseling specifically emphasizes short-term behavioral goals in an attempt to help the individual reduce or stop the use of alcohol altogether. Cognitive therapy techniques, like helping the teen recognize what tends to precede and follow their episodes of alcohol use, are often used to address alcohol abuse in teens. Some treatment programs include drug testing. Twelve-step p rograms like Alcoholics Anonymous are individualized drug-counseling methods. Motivational enhancement therapy encourages the teen to increase their desire to participate in therapy.Stimulus control refers to a treatment method that teaches the person to stay away from situations that are associated with alcohol use and to replace those situations with activities that are contrary to using drugs. Urge control is an approach to changing patterns that lead to drug use. Social control involves family members and other significant others of the alcoholic in treatmeWhile group therapy can be helpful in decreasing alcohol use in teens, groups that include a number of teens who also engage in disordered behaviors can actually tend to increase alcohol use in this age group. Family interventions for alcoholism that tend to be effective for teens include multidimensional family therapy (MDFT), group therapy, and multifamily educational intervention (MFE). MDFT has been found to be quite effec tive.Longer-term residential treatment of three to five months that addresses peer relationships, educational problems, and family issues is often used in treating alcoholism in teens. For youth in the first stage of alcohol use (having access, but not having yet used alcohol), preventive measures are used. Therefore, limiting access to alcohol or other drugs, addressing any risk factors of the youth or family, as well as optimal parental supervision and expression regarding expectations are often recommended. The approach to those who have experimented with alcohol should not be minimized by mental-health professionals, since infrequent use can progress to the more serious stages of alcohol use if not addressed.Therefore, professionals recommend that the youth be thoroughly educated about the effects and risks of alcohol, that fair but firm limits be set on the use of alcohol, and that the user be referred for brief counseling, a self-help group, and/or family support group. Teens who have progressed to the more advanced stages of alcoholism are typically treated intensively, using a combination of the medical, individual, and familial interventions already describedGreenblatt, JC. , â€Å"Patterns of Alcohol Use Among Adolescents and Associations with Emotional and Behavioral Problems,† U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, March 2000.Greenfeld L, â€Å"Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime,† Bureau of Justice Statistics, Report # NCJ-168632, 1998. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, â€Å"10th Special Report to the U. S. Congress on Alcohol and Health:Highlights fromCurrent Research,† June 2000. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, â€Å"Drinking in the United States: Main Findings from the 1992 National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey,† 1998. National Institute on Drug Abuse, â€Å"Monitoring the Future: National Results on Adolescent Drug Use, Overview of Key Findings,† 2001. U. S.Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, â€Å"Youth and Underage Drinking: An Overview,† â€Å"The Role of Parents in Preventing and Addressing Underage Drinking,† SAMHSA Fact Sheets, 2000. National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, Inc. , â€Å"Youth, Alcohol and Other. In any given age group, heavy and binge drinkers are 4-6 times more likely than nondrinkers to say they cut classes or skipped school. They are twice as likely as nondrinkers to say that their school work is poor, and they report more frequently that they are disobedient at school. 5 Among high school students, those who use alcohol are five times more likely to drop out than those who don't use alcohol. These prob lems are not limited to| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Measures to Reduce or Prevent Teenage AlcoholismEnvironmental: These youth alcoholism prevention initiatives are designed to reduce opportunities for youth to engage in underage drinking and include heightening awareness of the problem, increasing legal penalties for underage drinking and engaging community support to stop alcohol use by youth. Environmental-focused interventions include: * Increasing the cost of alcohol. Studies have shown that teens are less likely to purchase alcohol when it’s expensive. Obviously, teens have limited funds for such things. * Raising the minimum legal drinking age.Studies show that the earlier one begins drinking, the greater the likelihood of alcoholism. Also, binge drinking is most prevalent among teens and those in their early twenties. Binge drinking is very dangerous, carrying with it the risk of alcohol poisoning, coma, and even death. * Raising public awarenes s through public service campaigns and other initiatives. There are already some public services campaigns, but more are needed. In addition, the â€Å"just say no† and similar initiatives are not really effective. Campaigns based on research would be better. * Restaurant and bar server training and compliance checks. This should also include the training of all store clerks where alcohol is sold.In one study, more than 90% of high school seniors said it was easy for them to obtain alcohol when they wanted it. When alcohol is so easy to get, teens will continue to use it. * Deterring adults from purchasing alcohol for minors or providing alcohol to minors. It is illegal to provide minors with alcohol, but laws need to be consistently enforced. Giving alcohol to teens not only encourages them to drink, it sends the message that underage drinking is OK. * Enforcing penalties for the DWI (driving while intoxicated, use of false IDs, and violating zero-tolerance laws. One law tha t has proven useful is suspending or revoking the driver’s license of anyone underage caught drinking. It’s powerful deterrent for teens.Individual Measures to Reduce or Prevent Teenage AlcoholismThese youth alcoholism prevention initiatives help educate and prepare youth to resist the urge to experiment with alcohol and drink in spite of influences and opportunities to which they are exposed. Education that focuses on addressing attitudes and motivational factors, as well as providing youth with skills that enable them to â€Å"say no† and wait until they are of legal drinking age, has been proven most helpful. Individual-focused teenage alcoholism interventions include: * School-based prevention programs that include addressing peer pressure to drink and teaching teens how to resist those pressures in addition to providing information about the dangers of drinking.These programs also offer interactive and developmentally appropriate information, include peer-l ed components, and provide teacher training. * Family-oriented prevention initiatives where parents’ ability to influence their children’s behavior and attitudes play a critical role. Setting and enforcing rules against underage drinking and monitoring the child’s behavior have proven to help reduce the propensity of underage drinking and onset of youth alcoholism. For family-based teenage alcoholism interventions to be effective, parents need to be informed about the risks of teenage alcoholism and know how to talk to their child about alcohol use.Public campaigns can address these issues and so can school-based programs. | | | ConclusionAlcohol  is not an ordinary commodity. While it carries connotations of pleasure and sociability in the minds of many, harmful consequences of its use are diverse and widespreadFrom a global perspective, in order to reduce the harm caused by  alcohol, policies need